Military Anarchy—The 43-year Severan dynasty was brought to an abrupt end at the hands of Maximinus, a Thracian barbarian of enormous physical strength who had risen to a high position in the emperor's private guard. He had served the Severan family for over thirty years when he suddenly murdered Alexander Severus, seized the throne, and plunged the imperial government into chaos. He killed his enemies, which included virtually anyone from the ruling classes without mercy. He was murdered by his own troops after three wretched years in power, but the empire never recovered from this upheaval. The military anarchy which followed lasted until the reign of Diocletian, saw over twenty emperors in the space of fifty years, only one of whom died a natural death. None were distinguished, and the only notable event of the period was the rebellion of Queen Zenobia in Syria. She came close to conquering the eastern half of the Roman empire, but was put down by the emperor Aurelian in 272.

Diocletian and Constantine—Diocletian, who came to the throne in 284, finally brought order to an empire in chaos. He divided the empire into four districts, two in the east and two in the west, and appointed a junior and senior governor of each division (called caesar and emperor respectively). Upon the death or retirement of the emperor, the caesar would be elevated to emperor and appoint another caesar. This system worked for exactly one generation, but it allowed Diocletian to retire in peace and die a natural death, an accomplishment nearly unprecedented in imperial history.

ALARIC RECEIVING PRESENTS FROM THE ATHENIANS

One of the caesars appointed by Diocletian was Constantius, the father of Constantine. When Constantius died, Constantine was elected to replace him. He spent the early part of his reign consolidating power by fighting off rivals from both the east and west. The second half of his reign was dedicated to civil reforms and building his new capital at Constantinople. Most notably, Constantine was the first Christian emperor, and his edict of Milan in 313 made Christian worship legal throughout the empire. From this point on, with the exception only of Julian the Apostate, the imperial court was at least nominally Christian.

The peace and prosperity which took root during the thirty year reign of Constantine was short lived. On his death the empire was divided among his three sons but they quarreled among themselves while the empire sunk slowly back into disorder. All of Constantine's sons died without heirs, and after the death of his nephew, Julian the Apostate, the empire was permanently divided into an eastern and a western half. The only remaining emperor of note was Theodosius, who ably governed the eastern empire from 379 to 395, and put down some of the early Visigoth invaders. He is remembered for his willingness to do public penance for the slaughter of the Thessalonians, which was imposed on him by Ambrose, Bishop of Milan. The idea that even emperors were subject to the laws of God was a radically new idea that made a permanent mark upon Western civilization.

Fall of the Western Empire—Meanwhile, the empire of the west was already suffering from waves of barbarian invaders that the government was powerless to put down. By the time that the city of Rome was overrun by the Visigoths in 410, most of Gaul had already been abandoned to the invading Franks and the legions had been pulled from Britain in hopes of defending Italy.

The waves of barbarians that descended upon Italy during the fifth century only finished off a process that was already under way. The Western empire had ceded much of its territory without a fight, most wealthy families had moved away from Rome and the emperor himself had moved to Ravenna. By the time the city of Rome was invaded there was not even an army to send in its defense, since the cowardly Honorius, who sought only to appease the Visigoths, had murdered Stilicho, his most capable general. Still, the Visigoth invasion of 410 was mild compared to that of the Vandals, who plundered the city to ruin in 455. The Visigoths were at least Christian, semi-civilized, and desired a treaty with the Western Empire that would allow them self-governing territories. This they eventually obtained, and a Visigoth empire was established in Spain shortly after the death of Alaric the Visigoth. The Visigoths were allies of the Western Empire as long as it lasted and helped to ward off Attila the Hun, who overran Western Europe in 450.

By this time the area actually controlled by the Western emperor was reduced to Italy, and when it passed from the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustus, to the barbarian chief Odoacer in 476, it caused hardly a ripple. Odoacer was soon overthrown by Theodoric the Ostrogoth, who ruled Italy for many years but made no pretense of being an emperor. Ten years later, the last Gallo-Roman province of France, was conquered by Clovis. At that point, all of the old Roman provinces in Gaul, Hispania, and Italy were controled by German chieftains, who preserved some of the old Roman customs, but governed as independent commanders.

Christianity and Church Fathers—As the western empire collapsed, the power and influence of Christianity increased. Because of the fluid organization of the church, it was able to adapt and grow in an environment of political unrest. Kingdoms, chieftains, and empires might come and go, but the church provided a degree of continuity and civilization that was increasingly attractive to citizens of the collapsed empire. Many important leaders of the church who arose during this time of chaos while political powers rose and fell. Some of the influential christian leaders who lived during the decline of the Roman Empire were St. Jerome, Augustine of Hippo, Ambrose, Eusebius, Athanasius, and Benedict of Nursia.

Eastern Empire—Several generations after the fall of the Western Empire, the Eastern Empire enjoyed a brief resurgence. Between 530 and 560 A.D., under the rule of Justinian the Great, Constantinople won back much of the territory that had been lost to barbarians in the west. These included the reconquest of North Africa from the Vandals, the reconquest of Italy from the Ostrogoths, and several important victories against the Sassanid Empire in Persia. These victories were almost all due to the efforts of Belisarius, one of the greatest generals in Roman history, and for a brief time it looked as if the Roman Empire would reemerge as a dominant power. But a long period of decline followed the brilliant career of Belisarius, and Northern Italy was overrun by the Lombards only a few years after his death.

Character/Date	Short Biography
Military Anarchy
Maximinus d. 238	Thracian giant. Rose to head of army, seized imperial throne, and reigned as a barbarian.
Aurelian 214–275	Emperor who reunited the empire during the Military anarchy. Led campaign in Palmyra against Zenobia.
Zenobia ~ 267	Queen of Palmyra. Attempted to control the eastern empire, only to be crushed by Rome.
Diocletian/Constantine
Diocletian 245–313	Restored order to the empire after fifty years of chaos. Broke empire into four regions.
Constantine 272–337	First Christian emperor. Unified empire. Moved capital to Constantinople near Black Sea.
Julian the Apostate 331–363	Last emperor of the Constantinian dynasty. Tried to restore paganism.
Ulfilas 310–383	Missionary bishop who translate the bible into the Gothic language and converted the Goths to Arian Christianity.
Late Western Empire
Stilicho 359–408	Roman general who fought off the Visigoths before they overran Rome. Murdered by Emperor Honorius.
Aetius 396–454	Last great General of the Western Empire. Defeated Attila the Hun at Chalons.
Ricimer 405–472	Visigoth General who was master of Rome during the final years of the Empire.
Alaric the Visigoth 370–410	Chieftain who led the Visogoths into northern Italy, and then besieged and sacked Rome.
Attila the Hun 406–453	Barbarian chieftain who overran and terrorized much of Europe. Defeated at the Battle of Chalons.
Genseric 390–477	Leader of Vandals. Conquered Northern Africa and Sicily. Invaded and ransacked Rome.
Odoacer 435–493	Deposed last Roman Emperor and became King of Italy. Later overthrown by Theodoric the Ostrogoth.
Theodoric the Ostrogoth 454–526	Ostrogoth king who invaded Italy and successfully formed a Gothic-Roman kingdom.
Alboin d. 573	King of the Lombards who crossed the Alps and invaded Northern Italy. Made Pavia capital of Lombards.
Clovis 466–511	Founder of the Frankish Kingdom. Converted to Christianity by his wife Clotilda.
Late Eastern Empire
Valens 328–378	Eastern Emperor embroiled in wars in Persia and with the Goths. Died fighting Visigoths at Adrianople.
Theodosius 346–395	Emperor excommunicated by Ambrose for massacre of civilians at Thessalonia.
Justinian the Great 483–565	Ruled Byzantine Empire for 40 years. Well known for legal reforms known as Code of Justinian.
Empress Theodora 500–548	Born in humble circumstances, she married Justinian the Great and became his trusted advisor.
Belisarius 505–565	General associated with Julian the Great, reconquered much of lost Roman territory.

AD Year	Event
239	Alexander Severus is assassinated —throne usurped by barbarian chief Maximinus.
239-284	> Military anarchy.
259	Emperor Valerian taken prisoner by the Persians after the Battle of Edessa and tortured to death.
270	Civil War in the East with Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra.
285-305	> Diocletian takes control of the Roman government and divides it into four provinces.
306	Constantine proclaimed Augustus by his legions after the death of his father.
312	Constantine gains Control of the Western Empire at Battle of Milvian Bridge.
313	Edict of Milan: Christianity is made legal throughout Roman Empire.
324-337	Constantine becomes sole ruler of both Eastern and Western Empires.
325	First Council of Nicaea is held to combat the Arian heresy.
330	The City of Constantinople is founded as the capital of Constantine's empire.
337-361	Empire languishes under waring sons of Constantine.
362	Julian the Apostate tries to restore paganism.
379-395	Theodosius reigns in the east. Fends off Usurpers in the West and briefly reunites the empire.
410	Alaric the Visigoth, leader of the Visigoths, Invades Rome.
451	Visigoths and Romans Fend off Attila and his Huns at the Battle of Chalons.
455	Genseric Sacks and Plunders Rome.
468	Failed Expedition against the Vandals of Africa sent by Emperor Leo.
476	Imperial leadership passes to a barbarian king, Odoacer.
486	Clovis defeats Syagrius, the last Roman governor in Gaul, at the Battle of Soissons.
496	Clovis is baptized as a Catholic Christian in Reims on Christmas Day..
493	Theodoric the Ostrogoth reigns in the Ostrogoth kingdom of Italy.
527-565	> Reign of Justinian the Great in the Eastern Roman Empire.
533	Belisarius Reconquers Vandal Kingdom of Africa.
538	Belisaurius Besieges Ravenna, and regains Italy for the Eastern Kingdom.
572	The Lombards, under Alboin, cross the Alps and Conquer Italy.

Book Title	Selected Chapters (# chapters)
Core Reading Selections
Haaren - Famous Men of Rome	Constantine the Great to End of the Western Empire (2)
Haaren - Famous Men of the Middle Ages	Alaric the Visigoth to Justinian the Great (8)
Guerber - The Story of the Romans	The Gigantic Emperor to End of the Western Empire (9)
Tappan - The Story of the Roman People	From Aurelius to Diocletian to The Last Centuries (3)
Supplemental Recommendations
Lansing - Barbarian and Noble	A Roman and a Barbarian to Attila the Scourge of God (4)
Morris - Historical Tales: Roman	An Imperial Savage to The Downfall of Rome (4)
Bradley - The Goths	entire book
Oman - The Byzantine Empire	entire book
Church - The Count of the Saxon Shore	entire book