Era Summary Characters Timeline Reading Assignments
Divided Italy—From the Age of Charlemagne to the the 19th century, Italy was divided into northern, central and, southern kingdoms. Northern Italy was composed of independent duchies and city-states that were part of the Holy Roman Empire; the Papal States of central Italy were ruled by the Pope; and southern Italy had been ruled as an independent Kingdom since the Norman conquest of 1059. The language, culture, and government of each region developed independently so the idea of a united Italy did not gain popularity until the 19th century, after the Napoleonic Wars wreaked havoc on the traditional order.
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Italy and the French Revolution—The real story of the Unification of Italy began with the French conquest of Italy during the French Revolutionary Wars. Italy had been invaded many times before, with no great change it its traditional boundaries, but the French invaders of 1796 deposed princes, set up client governments, confiscated and redistributed Church property, and ministered according to "enlightenment" principles. After combining most of the northern duchies into the "Cisalpine Republic", the French invaded the Papal States, kidnapped the Pope, and created a short-lived Roman Republic. The French occupation of Italy was unpopular, however, partly because of the rapacious plunder of the revolutionary army, but also because of the anti-Catholic bigotry of the French Revolutionary government.
When Napoleon made himself emperor, he recognized the problems in Italy and sought to create a more stable government by repairing relations with the Pope. He healed the breach between the French government and the Catholic Church, declared France and Italy Catholic countries, and returned control of the Papal states to Pius VII. At the same time, he reformed the northern republics as the Kingdom of Italy, and appointed his relatives as monarchs in both northern and southern Italy. By 1815, when Napoleon's empire fell and the monarchies were restoried, the government of Italy had been in the hands of modern-minded ministers for nearly 20 years, and secret political societies such as the Freemasons and Carbonari had spread throughout the land. The old monarchies were restored, but the political landscape had changed forever especially in the Northern kingdoms most influenced by French ideas.
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Cavour and the Rise of Piedmont-Sardinia—As the career of Mazzini declined a new mastermind of Italian unification arose. This was Cavour, the Prime Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont, the most liberal state in Italy. The king of Sardinia was Victor Emmanuel II, who later became the first king of Italy, but it was his prime minister who worked methodically to bring about the unification of Italy under the control of Sardinia. Cavour recognized that the only way to unify Italy was with the aid of foreign powers. He therefore cultivated relationships with France, Britain, and Prussia, all of whom played key roles in "Risorgimento". Cavour's first step was to send Sardinian troops to fight in the Crimean War in order to cultivate diplomatic and military relations between Sardinia, England, and France. This paid off in 1860 when France agreed to help Sardinia drive Austria out of northern Italy in return for the provinces of Nice and Savoy. This arrangment suceeded in bringing most of northern Italy under Sardinian control, but it infuriated Garibaldi, a native of Nice. He considered Cavour and Victor Emmanuel opportunists and traitors to Italy, but worked with them nevertheless.
Cavour had hoped that France, led by Napoleon III, would continue to fight against Austria after the successful battle of Solferino, but instead Napoleon negotiated a peace settlement that gave Sardinia control of most of Northern Italy but allowed Austria continued rule over Venice. Although Napoleon III personally favored Italian unification he knew his Catholic subjects would revolt if he moved against Rome and he was dissillusioned at the lack of popular support for unification. Inspite of this disappointment, Cavour was able to integrate the duchies of Parma, Modena, and Tuscany into his newly expanded government, after holding them temporarily as a client republic.
Garibaldi and the Kingdom of Sicily—Having exhausted France as an ally in his program to unite Italy, Cavour now launched an even more ambitious scheme with the help of Britain, in order to annex southern Italy to his domains. With the help of Mazzini, Garibaldi, and Britain, a plan was made to invade Sicily by sea. Garibaldi was by far the most popular hero of Italy so he was chosen to lead the expedition with a band of 1000 "volunteers". Both Sardinia and Britain were involved in planning the mission but thought it prudent to disavow official involvement. For both political and propaganda purposes it was important that the "rebellion" in Sicily appear to be a popular uprising. In fact, dozens of Neopolitian officers had been bribed in advance to surrender and the British navy prevented loyal troops from interferring in the "rebellion". Garibaldi's brilliant campaign in Sicily, including the miraculous "surrender" of 15,000 Royalist troops at Palermo, was entirely orchestrated behind the scenes by secret societies and foreign governments, but all credit was given to the fearless Italian patriot.
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Annexing Venice and Rome—Militarily, the Kingdom of Italy was now strong enough to overthrow Rome but Cavour knew that as long as the French were protecting the region, annexing Rome was would risk war. He turned his focus to fostering a relationship with Prussia, Austria's enemy to the north, in hopes of making an alliance to recover Venice. Although Cavour did not live to see his plans come true, in 1866 Italy marched an army into Venice at the very start of the Austro Prussian War. This split Austria's forces, and even though the Italians were defeated in battle, the Prussians insisted that Austria cede control of Venice when terms of peace were negotiated.
Italy also had Prussia to thank for its acquisition of Rome four years later, when French troops were forced to withdraw their protection from Rome as a result of the Franco Prussian War. Left unguarded, the Pope had only a small volunteer force to protect him. After a short, symbolic battle, the Italians assumed control of Rome, but the Pope declined to recognize the new government and refused to leave the premesis of the Vatican for the rest of his reign. Other Popes followed suit, and for the next 59 years, the Papacy continued to uphold its historic claim to the city of Rome, while the Pope was kept as a "Prisoner in the Vatican". It was not until 1929 that the Lateran treaty was signed and Vatican City became an independent state. Only then did the Pope recognize the legitimacy of Italian control of Rome.
After Unification—Unfortunately, the first few decades of Italian independence were not a particularly good example of democratic government. The government was extremely corrupt and a great deal of the land confiscated from the church and southern aristocrats fell into the hands of rapacious property owners. Taxes and rents were raised to support the political class, while over nine million Italians migrated to North and South America between 1861 and 1920. The flow of Italians out of Italy did not diminish until the Fascist government that arose in the 1920s began to restrict immigration.Character/Date | Short Biography |
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Napoleonic Era | |
1781–1824 |
Stepson of Napoleon, who accompanied him on all his early campaigns. Later Prince of Italy. |
1729–1800 |
Renowned general who won victories for Russia against Turks, Napoleon, and Polish rebels. |
1769–1821 |
Victorious general who rose to power during the French Revolution. Crowned himself Emperor and restored France to greatness. |
1768–1844 |
Older brother of Napoleon who was crowned first, King of Naples, and then later, King of Spain. |
1767–1815 |
Leading general of Napoleonic Wars, brother-in-law of Napoleon. Appointed king of Naples after Joseph was installed as king of Spain. |
1742–1823 |
Pope during the reign of Napoleon and the early restoration period. |
1757–1822 |
Renowned sculptor who showed talent at an early age by carving a lion out of butter. |
Rigorgimento | |
1807–1882 |
Led several campaigns in the Wars of Italian Unification. Renowned as a hero patriot of Italy. |
1792–1878 |
Long serving pope who reigned during the unification of Italy. Famous for Vatican I, papal infallibility doctrine, and Syllabus of Errors. |
1805–1872 |
Italian journalist and political activist who worked for the Unification of Italy and advocated popular democracy throughout Europe. |
1810–1861 |
Prime minister of Sardinia who used skill and diplomacy to unite Italy under the rule of the Piedmont king. |
1808–1873 |
Nephew of Napoleon, elected emperor of France after revolution of 1848. Deposed after disastrous Franco-Prussian War. |
1820–1878 |
Became first king of a United Italy after Garibaldi handed over control of Naples. Previously Savoyard King of Sardinia. |
After Unification | |
1835–1914 |
Popular pope who resisted modernism and promoted the eucharist and classical philosophy. |
1745–1827 |
Invented the first usable electrical storage battery. |
1874–1937 |
Inventor of a wireless telegraphy system, first used on ships. |
AD Year | Event |
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Rise of Italy | |
723 | First Doge of Venice elected, after collapse of the Byzantine government |
800 | Northern Italy and Papal states included as "Kingdom of Italy" within the Holy Roman Empire. |
1005 | Republic of Genoa established as a self-governing city-state. |
1154 | Kingdom of Sicily established by Norman prince Roger II of Sicily. |
1395 | Duchy of Milan created in Northern Italy as part of Holy Roman Empire, between Savoy and Venice. |
1416 | Duchy of Savoy established in Northwest Italy as part of the Holy Roman Empire. |
1569 | Grand Duchy of Tuscany, formerly the Republic of Florence, established as part of Holy Roman Empire. |
Napoleonic Era | |
1796 | Napoleon assumes command of France's army in Italy, defeats Piedmont-Sardinia and the Duchy of Milan, then invades Venice. |
1797 | Battle of Rivoli, Mantua surrenders. Austrian army in Italy rounted. Parma and Modena surrender. |
1797 | Treaty of Campo-Formio cedes Belgium and most of Northern Italy to France, leaving only Venice to Austria. |
1798 | French client republics formed in Northern Italy and Switzerland. |
1798 | Papal States invaded. Republic of Rome formed. Pope Pius VI kidnapped, dies in France. |
1799 | French invasion of Southern Italy is frustrated by a peasant rebellion. |
1799 | Russian/Austrian offensive forces France out of Northern Italy. |
1800 | Napoleon seizes power in Paris and immediate leads an army to reconquer Italy. |
1801 | Napoleon signs concordat with Pope Pius VII, restoring some rights to the Church and ceding Papal states. |
1805 | Northern Duchies and client-Republics joined into a "Kingdom of Italy" with Napoleon crowned as king. |
1806 | Kingdom of Naples falls to the French. Napoleon's brother declared king. Later replaced by Murat |
Secular "reforms" in Naples and Northern Italy involve closing monasteries, selling church property. | |
1815 | Kingdoms of Italy restored to pre-1789 boundaries by the Congress of Vienna. |
Revolution of 1848 | |
1820 | Revolts in Naples and Piedmont-Sardinia organized by secret societies, easily put down by conservative governments. |
1831 | Revolt in Rome, organized by the "Carbonari", put down by an Austrian army. The pope, Gregory XVI, flees Rome. |
1845 | Newly elected Pius IX implements many reforms, allows a free press and restores citizenship to many radicals and revolutionaries. |
1848 | Simultaneous revolts, organized by Mazzini and "Young Italy" in Naples, Piedmont-Sardinia, Milan. |
1848 | Tuscan and Piedmont forces invade Lombardy to expel Austria. Pope Pius IX fails to join anti-Austrian coalition, forced to flee Rome. |
1849 | Austria crushes rebellion in Northern Italy. France puts down rebellion in the Papal States and leaves a French guard in Rome. |
Unification of Italy | |
1850 | Victor Emmanuel II becomes king of Piedmont-Sardinia; Cavour becomes prime minster with a liberal cabinet, implements anti-clerical measures. |
1852 | Napoleon III becomes Emperor of France. Pledges to protect Rome from revolutionaries in order to win favor with French Catholics. |
1854 | Cavour sends Piedmont forces to the Crimean War in order to gain favor with France and England—lays groundwork for successful takeover of Northern Italy. |
1858 | Secret meeting between Cavour and Napoleon III. France gets Nice and Savoy if it helps Piedmont drive Austria out of Northern Italy. |
1859 | France allies itself with Piedmont against Austria. France drives Austria out of Lombardy, but drops out of coalition, leaving Austria in possession of Venice. |
1860 | Tuscany and northern Papal States declare for union with Piedmont-Sardinia. |
1860 | Garibaldi invades Sicily and Naples and brings entire kingdom under his control. He voluntarily passes control to Piedmont-Sardinia. |
1861 | Kingdom of Italy is declared with Victor Emmanuel II as the head. Cavour dies at the very moment of his triumph. |
Consolidation of Papal States | |
1862 | Garibaldi makes an unsuccessful attack on Rome. |
1866 | Italy joins Prussia in war against Austria, wins Venice as its reward. |
1870 | French troops abandon Rome when France is attacked by Prussia. The Pope is surrounded and forced into out of Rome, into the Papal compound in Vatican City. |
1871 | Rome becomes capital of Italy. Victor Emmanuel II is the first King of United Italy. |
Kingdom of Italy | |
1929 | Vatican City created as a separate state with Rome. () ?> |
Core Reading Assignments | ||
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Haaren - Famous Men of Modern Times | Garibaldi (1) | |
Synge - Growth of the British Empire | The Awakening of Italy to The King of United Italy (2) | |
Morris - Nations of Europe and the Great War | Garibaldi and Italian Unity (1) | |
Supplemental Recommendations | ||
Snell - Garibaldi and his Red-shirts | entire book | |
Birkhead - Heroes of Modern Europe | Mazzini, "God and the People" to Garibaldi, "For Italy" (2) | |
Wood - The Boy's Book of Battles | Solferino to Palermo (2) | |
Forbes - Life of Pius X | entire book | |
Abbott - Joseph Bonaparte | Joseph King of Naples to The Crown a Burden (2) |
I: Introductory, II: Intermediate, C: College Prep