Caesar vs. Pompey, 49-47 B.C. Alexandrian War, 48 B.C. Caesar vs. Republicans, 46-45 B.C. Triumvirate vs. Republicans, 43-36 B.C. Augustus vs. Antony, 31 B.C.
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The war did not end either with the death of Pompey after the battle of Pharsalia, or even with the assassination of Caesar in 44 BC The republican cause was dealt a severe blow at Philippi several years after the death of Caesar, but was not entirely extinguished for many more years, as the sons of Pompey were able to raise a navy and continue the fight from Sicily. The final phase of this war was fought long after the republican cause was lost, between Octavius and Antony at the battle of Actium. This campaign, however, was between two contending emperors, neither whom represented either the populares or the optimates. Both parties had been subsumed into an entirely new form of government, led by a Caesar and run by the military, which would control the empire for then next four centuries.
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The Caesarean army in Africa at first had a great victory at Utica, but shortly afterward were cut to pieces at the battle of Bagradas. This left Africa in the hands of the optimates, and Utica became the stronghold of the Cato the Younger, and Metellus Scipio, two of the republican generals. The Caesareans also lost an important naval battle in the Adriatic, which complicated Caesar's plan to invade Greece and meet Pompey in battle. Undaunted, he launched a small army from Italy, and landed in Epirus. Pompey however, refused to give battle even though Caesar's army was unprovisioned and did not have reliable naval support. Caesar attempted to force a battle by surrounding Pompey's camp at Dyrrachium but was driven off, with significant loss. He then retreated to Thessaly, and there received reinforcements from Marc Antony. Caesar's army was no more than a third the size of Pompey's but they were tried and dedicated "picked" troops and when the battle of Pharsalus was finally fought, they were completely victorious.
Date | Battle Summary | |
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Siege of Massilia (Caesar vs Pompey )
Caesareans victory
This city was besieged by Ceasarean army and navy in the summer of B.C. 49 when they refused to open their gates to the conqueror. Caesar left the siege to be conducted by his generals while he marched to Llerda. The town surrendered after a naval battle. | ||
Battle of Llerda (Caesar vs Pompey )
Caesareans victory
In June of B.C.49, Caesar led his army into Spain to confront several legions loyal to the republicans, led by Afranius, and Varro. Instead of engaging in a pitched battled he surrounded the legions, and forced them to surrender. | ||
Battle of Utica
(Caesar vs Pompey )
Caesareans victory
Fought B.C. 49 between the Pompeians, under Varus, and the Caesarians, under Curio. Varus sallied from his entrenchments to attack the Caesarians, but was signally defeated, his troops fleeing in disorder, and opening the way for the occupation of Utica by Varus. | ||
Battle of Bagradas (Caesar vs Pompey )
Republicans victory
Fought B.C. 49, between the Caesareans under Curio and the Numidians under Juba and Saburra, who adhered to the fortunes of Pompey. The Roman cavalry was cut to pieces, before the legionaries could come to its assistance, and eventually the Romans were surrounded, and cut down to a man, Curio being amongst the slain. This victory left the Pompeians masters of Africa. | ||
Battle of Curicta (Caesar vs Pompey )
Republicans victory
Fought B.C. 49, when the Caesarian fleet under Dolabella was totally destroyed by the Pompeian fleet under Marcus Octavius. This victory cut off the Caesarian army under Caius Antonius, which was quartered on the island of Curicta, and Antonius was forced to surrender. | ||
Battle of Dyrrachium (Caesar vs Pompey )
Republicans victory
Fought B.C. 48, between the Caesarians, under Julius Caesar, and the Pompeians, under Pompey. The latter having formed an entrenched camp some distance from Dyrrachium, Caesar interposed his army between the camp and the town. This interrupted Pompey's communications, and he, in consequence, attacked the Caesarian lines, which he forced, at the cost of 1,000 men, and obliged Caesar to retire. | ||
Battle of Pharsalus
(Caesar vs Pompey )
Caesareans victory
Fought August 9, B.C. 48, between the Pompeians, 60,000 strong, under Pompey, and Caesareans, 25,000 strong, under Caesar. The Pompeian cavalry drove back that of Caesar, but following in pursuit, were thrown into confusion by the legionaries, whereupon they turned and fled from the field; the infantry followed and the battle became a rout, in which 15,000 Pompeians, and only 200 Caesareans fell. After the battle, 20,000 Pompeians surrendered. | ||
Battle of Tauris (Caesar vs Pompey )
Caesareans victory
Fought B.C. 47, between the Pompeian fleet, under Marcus Octavius, and the Caesareans, under Publius Vatinius. The Caesarean fleet consisted of merchant vessels, temporarily equipped with beaks, but Vatinius, though his ships were inferior both in number and quality, boldly attacked the Pompeians, and after severe fighting, completely defeated them, compelling Octavius to abandon the Adriatic. |
Conquered Gaul, prevailed in civil war. Mastermind of Roman empire. Killed by senators. | |
General who fought for Caesar at Utica and Bragradas River. | |
Roman General who changed sides several times in the civil war. Fought for Caesar at Pharsalus. | |
Very renowned general. Defeated pirates. Led opposition to Caesar in civil war. | |
Roman governor of Africa. Sided with Pompey in the civil wars. Died at Munda. | |
King of Numidia who sided with Pompey in the civil war. Killed at Thrapsus. |
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Meanwhile, a rebellion was brewing in the Bosporus regions bordering the Black Sea. Pharnaces II, the son of Mithridates took advantage of the ongoing civil war to bring Colchis and Armenia under his control, believing the Romans were too preoccupied to stop him. He defeated a Roman army at Nicopolis, and regained Pontus, his father's old kingdom. Caesar, however, immediately marched upon Pontus and forced a battle at Ziela, where Pharnaces was utterly routed. It was after this battle that Caesar sent his famous message, "Veni, vidi, vici" (I came, I saw, I conquered). After these campaigns Caesar returned to Rome, and did not take up the war against the Republicans for another year.
Date | Battle Summary | |
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Battle of Alexandria
(Alexandrian War )
Caesareans victory
Fought summer of B.C. 48 between a small force of Romans under Caesar on behalf of Cleopatra, against the Egyptian forces of Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra's cause prevailed and her brother and rival was drowned. | ||
Battle of Nicopolis (Bosporan Rebellion )
Bosporus victory
Fought B.C. 47, when Domitius Calvinus, with one Roman legion and a contingent of Pontic and other Asiatic troops, encountered the Bosporans, under Pharnaces. Calvinus' Asiatic troops fled at the first onset, and he was completely defeated, only the steadiness of the Romans saving him from disaster. | ||
Battle of Ziela
(Bosporan Rebellion )
Caesareans victory
Fought August 2, B.C. 47, between 7 Roman legions, with some Asiatic auxiliaries, under Julius Caesar, and the Bosporans, under Pharnaces. Pharnaces attacked the Romans while they were pitching camp, but the legionaries quickly formed up, and utterly routed their assailants. This is the occasion of Caesar's famous despatch, "Veni, vidi, vici." |
Conquered Gaul, prevailed in civil war. Mastermind of Roman empire. Killed by senators. | |
King of Egypt who contended with Cleopatra for the throne. Deposed by Caesar in Alexandrian War. | |
Son of Mithridates. Annexed territories around the Black Sea. Fought Caesar at Ziela. | |
Roman General who fell to Pharnaces II at Nicopolis. |
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At every victory, Caesar had offered terms of the greatest leniency and at all times tried to reconcile his enemies. Still, an opposition force that refused to submit it his authority held out for several years at Utica in Africa. It was not until 46 BC that Caesar launched an expedition to Africa, and at Ruspina, met Labienus, one of his old generals, who had deserted to the republicans. Labienus had a much larger army and defeated Caesar with great loss. Undaunted, Caesar called up more legions and a few months later, met the Republican army, this time led by Metellus Scipio, at Thapsus. This was an enormous battle, far bigger than Pharsalus, and hard fought. The republican forces were routed, Scipio died in battle, and Cato the Younger famously committed suicide rather than submit to Caesar.
Still the republicans were not vanquished. Labienus had fled to Spain to join forces with Varus and Gnaeus, the elder son of Pompey, and there induced several republican legions, who had reconciled with Caesar after Pharsalus, to desert. Spain was back in the hands of the republicans, and Caesar's final battle, at Munda, was another colossal affair involving dozens of legions and tens of thousands of casualties. Varus and Labienus were killed and Gnaeus was wounded, but Sextus, the youngest son of Pompey escaped to Sicily.
Date | Battle Summary | |
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Battle of Ruspina (Caesar vs Republicans )
Republicans victory
Fought January 3, 46 B.C., between Julius Caesar, with three legions, and a force of Pompeians, composed entirely of cavalry and archers, under Labienus. Caesar's troops were surrounded, but behaving with extreme steadiness, were able to retire to Ruspina in good order, though with very heavy loss. | ||
Battle of Thapsus (Caesar vs Republicans )
Caesareans victory
Fought April 6, B.C. 46, between the Caesareans, consisting of 10 legions, under Julius Caesar, and the Pompeians, 14 legions, in addition to cavalry, light troops, and 100 elephants, under Metellus Scipio and Juba. The Ceasareans were victorius, and by this victory took control of North Africa. Cato the Younger committed suicide after the loss of his army | ||
Battle of Munda
(Caesar vs Republicans )
Caesareans victory
Fought March 17, B.C. 45, between the Pompeians, under Cnaeus Pompeius, and the Caesareans, under Julius Caesar. The Pompeians were totally defeated, losing 30,000 men, including Labienus and Varro, while the Caesareans lost 1,000 only. Cnaeus Pompey was wounded. This defeat put an end to the resistance of the Pompeian faction in Spain, and the action is further notable as being Caesar's last battle. |
Conquered Gaul, prevailed in civil war. Mastermind of Roman empire. Killed by senators. | |
Highly principled republican who opposed Caesar, killed self after defeat of Pompey. | |
Leader of the Republican resistance in Utica. Led Republican army at Thapsus. | |
Eldest son of Pompey. Led Republican forces at Munda. | |
Caesarean General who defected to the Republicans. Fought at Thrapsus and died at Munda. | |
Roman governor of Africa. Sided with Pompey in the civil wars. Died at Munda. | |
King of Numidia who sided with Pompey in the civil war. Killed at Thrapsus. |
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The triumvirate was openly anti-republican, so Brutus and Cassius, who had master-minded the assassination of Caesar, fled to the east where they raised armies. Octavius and Antony then raised an army and met Brutus and Cassius at Philippi. There were two separate battles several miles apart. The results of the first battle were mixed, but Cassius, fearing a total loss, committed suicide. In the final battle, however, the Republicans were utterly defeated. Brutus and several of his officers also committed suicide. This was an enormous set back for the Republicans, but still some resistance lingered on. The republic still had a formidable navy, and a base of operations under Sextus Pompey in Sicily. This final bastion of republican resistance to was not vanquished until 36 BC when Octavius sent his best general, Agrippa, against Sextus Pompey at the battle of Naulachus.
Date | Battle Summary | |
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Siege of Mutina (Second Triumvirate )
Octavius victory
Fought April 16, 43 B.C., between the adherents of Antony, and three Consular armies, under Hirtius, Octavius, and Vibius Pansa. Antony, who was besieging Mutina, was attacked simultaneously by the three armies. That of Pansa was routed, and Pansa slain but Octavius and Hirtius gained some small success. Antony, however, was undefeated, and continued the siege. On the 27th Octavius and Hirtius made a combined attack on his lines, and succeeded in forcing their way through into the town, though Hirtius fell in the action. | ||
Battle of Philippi
(Second Triumvirate )
Triumvirs victory
Fought B.C. 42, between the Republicans, under Brutus and Cassius, 100,000 strong, and the army of the Triumvirs, about equal in numbers, under Octavius and Mark Antony. Brutus on the right repulsed the legions of Octavius, and penetrated into his camp. Cassius, however, was overthrown by Antony, and would have been overwhelmed but for the arrival of aid from the successful right wing. The action was renewed on the second day, when the Triumvirs were completely victorious, and the Republican army dispersed. Brutus committed suicide on the field of battle. | ||
Battle of Mylex (Sicilian Campaign )
Caesareans victory
Fought B.C. 36, between the Pompeian fleet, under Sextus Pompeius, and the fleet of the Triumvirs, under Agrippa. The Pompeians were defeated. | ||
Battle of Naulachus (Sicilian Campaign )
Caesareans victory
Fought September 3, B.C. 36, between the Pompeian fleet of 300 ships, under Sextus Pornpeius, and the fleet of the Triumvirs, of equal strength, under Agrippa. The action was severely contested, but in the end Agrippa was victorious, and Pompeius fled with 17 vessels only. |
With Octavius, led empire after Caesar's death. Liaison with Cleopatra caused downfall. | |
First emperor. Reigned for over fifty years. Established the Imperial system. | |
Mastermind of conspiracy to assassinate Caesar. Committed suicide at Philippi. | |
Leader of conspirators to assassinate Caesar. Committed suicide at Philippi. | |
Youngest son of Pompey. Fled to Sicily after Munda and held out until for several years with a republican Navy. | |
Most trusted general and advisor of Augustus Caesar. Married Augustus's daughter Julia. |
Battle of Philippi in | Cleopatra by Jacob Abbott |
Man Who Looked Like Hercules in | Tales of the Romans: The Children's Plutarch by F. J. Gould |
Caesar's Friend and Enemy in | Tales of the Romans: The Children's Plutarch by F. J. Gould |
Vision of Brutus in | The Story of the Romans by H. A. Guerber |
Augustus in | Famous Men of Rome by John H. Haaren & A. B. Poland |
Marcus Brutus in | Our Young Folks' Plutarch by Rosalie Kaufman |
Second Triumvirate in | The Story of Rome by Mary Macgregor |
Battle of Philippi in | The Story of Rome by Mary Macgregor |
Death of Brutus in | The Story of Rome by Mary Macgregor |
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It was ten years before the two met again in battle, but the relationship became severely strained when Antony left his family in Rome to live for several years in Egypt with Cleopatra. He did not so much lose his empire by force as by abandoning his responsibilities and giving himself over to pleasure. His armies in the east were more than a fair match for those of Octavius, but when the contention broke into open war at Actium, he deserted the conflict in mid-battle to sail back to Egypt. Pursued there by Octavius, he committed suicide, and Cleopatra followed him in death shortly after. By this time, Octavius, now Augustus Caesar, had consolidated power in Rome, and was in effect, if not yet in name, the first Roman Emperor. The battle of Actium was followed by a long period of peace and prosperity within the empire, and the family of the Caesars continued to rule the empire for the next hundred years.
Date | Battle Summary | |
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Siege of Perusia (Second Triumvirate )
Octavius victory
This city was besieged in B.C. 41 by the forces of Octavius. It was the stronghold of Lucius Antonius, and Fulvia, the brother and wife of Mark Antony, who had tried to raise a rebellion against Octavius during Antony's absence in the east. The town was taken, and Fulvia died in exile, but Lucius was freed. | ||
Battle of Actium
(Second Triumvirate )
Octavius victory
Fought September 2, B.C. 31, between the fleet of Antony, 460 galleys, and that of Octavius, about 250 sail, but much lighter and less well manned than those of Antony. The battle was fiercely contested, with varying fortune; but at a critical moment Cleopatra ordered the Egyptian admiral to make sail, and with 60 galleys withdrew from the fight. She was followed by Antony, and his fleet, discouraged by his flight, surrendered after ten hours' fighting. The Octavians captured 300 galleys, and 5,000 Antonians fell in the action. A few days later Antony's land army of 120,000 men laid down their arms. |
With Octavius, led empire after Caesar's death. Liaison with Cleopatra caused downfall. | |
First emperor. Reigned for over fifty years. Established the Imperial system. | |
Wealthy and scheming Roman matron. Married to Clodius, then to Mark Antony. Enemy of Cicero. | |
Brother of Mark Antony who conspired with Fulvia to rebel against Octavius. |
Battle of Actium in | Cleopatra by Jacob Abbott |
Antony and Augustus in | Roman Life in the Days of Cicero by Alfred J. Church |
Antony and Cleopatra in | The Story of the Romans by H. A. Guerber |
Marc Antony in | Back Matter by books/horne/soldiers/_back.html |
Antony in | Our Young Folks' Plutarch by Rosalie Kaufman |
Battle of Actium in | The Story of Rome by Mary Macgregor |
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![]() Crossing the Rubicon in Julius Caesar |
![]() Death of Pompey in Julius Caesar |
![]() The Elephants made Torch-bearers in Julius Caesar |
![]() Cleopatra's Sister in the Triumphal Procession in Cleopatra |
![]() The Catapult in Augustus—His Life and Work |
![]() Caesar's Soldiers in The Story of the Romans |
![]() Caesar crossing the Rubicon in Famous Men of Rome |
![]() Caesar Crossing the Rubicon in Greatest Nations - Rome |
![]() Flight of Pompey from Pharsalia in Greatest Nations - Rome |
![]() Suicide of Brutus in Greatest Nations - Rome |
![]() The Sea-Fight of Actium in Greatest Nations - Rome |
![]() Looking down upon the stream, he stood awhile deep in thought. in The Story of Rome |
![]() Here, sheltered by steep cliffs, he sat down to rest. in The Story of Rome |
![]() Caesar paused on the banks of the Rubicon. in On the Shores of the Great Sea |
![]() Caesar Crossing the Rubicon. in Old World Hero Stories |
![]() Brutus and his companions after the Battle of Philippi in Plutarch's Lives W. H. Weston |