Wars of Italian Unification

1795-1870
France, Piedmont-Sardinia — versus — Austria, Kingdom of Two Sicilies, and Papal States

Napoleon's Campaign in Italy — 1796-1800       First War of Italian Unification — 1848-50      
Second War of Italian Unification — 1859-60       Expedition of the Thousand — 1860-61       Annexation of Rome — 1870   

The series of battles known as the "Wars of Italian Unification" (also known as "Risorgimento") were fought between 1848 and 1870. However, the real process of Unification began much earlier, during Napoleon's Italian campaign of the French Revolutionary Wars. In March of 1796 Napoleon, a low-ranking French general, was sent to Northwest Italy to oppose an Austrian army. Within a year he had conquered Northern Italy and forced Austria to sign a humiliating Peace Treaty. Plunder and tribute from Napoleon's Italian conquests provided a primary source of income for the Revolutionary government and made Napoleon a hero in France.

THE MEETING OF GARIBALDI AND VICTOR EMMANUEL II

For most of the next 20 years, Italy was governed as a client-state of France. The aristocracy either went into exile or adopted liberal principles in order to hold onto power. The secret political societies that had honey-combed France before the revolution spread to Italy, and it was primarily in these societies, such as the Freemasons, "Carbonari", and "Young Italy", that the ideal of Italian Unity took hold. In 1815, most of the Monarchies of Northern italy were restored to their 1892 boundaries, but after 20 years of liberal policies, the country was fundamentally changed. Political districts had been reorganized, property of political enemies had been confiscated and sold, government schools had been established, and pro-republican ministers had had a taste of power. The old order was "restored" in Italy, but many changes could not be undone.

The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, in Northwest Italy, bordered on France and was most influenced by French Republican philosophy. It was this region that took the lead in uniting Italy. The goal was always a secular republic, but since the general population of Italy was Catholic and monarchist, they thought it best to unite as a constitutional, nominally-Catholic kingdom, where the real power lay in the parliament. Both France and Austria opposed unification for different reasons, and it was not until Sardinia united with Prussia, an enemy of both France and Austria, that it gained its ends.

The Wars of Italian Unification took place in three phases. In 1848-1849, pro-republican rebellions broke out in Lombardy, Venice, and Rome, but there was little popular support, and they were put down quickly. In 1859, Piedmont-Sardinia, with the help of France, drove Austria out of Lombardy and united all of northern Italy under the King of Sardinia. Soon after, Garibaldi, an independent patriot, gathered an army of 1000 to attack Sicily, and then crossed over into the Kingdom of Naples. He met everywhere with success, but this was largely due to mass desertions of the Neopolitan army, which was infiltrated with liberal officers who sought personal enrichment under a new government. When Garibaldi "voluntarily" handed over his command to the king of Sardinia, the north and south of Italy were united under a single ruler. The Papal states, however, were still protected by the French, and were not united with the Sardinia-led Kingdom of Italy until 1870.

Napoleon's Campaign in Italy : 1796-1800

NAPOLEON AT LODI

The second major front in Europe during the French Revolutionary wars was in Italy. There was little activity until Napoleon, a young, almost unknown general, was given command of the French legions on the Italian border. At the time they were the worst equipped and least organized. In a matter of months Napoleon emerged as a superlative general and tactician. He defeated the Sardinian army before it had a chance to get support from Austria and marched immediately into Lombardy, where he took the Austrian troops off guard. He crossed a critical boundary by taking the Bridge at Lodi, and quickly invested the key Austrian fortification at Mantua. All this was done in a matter of months before Austria had a chance recognize the threat in Italy or send reinforcements.

By the time Austria sent reinforcements to the area Napoleon had conquered Lombardy, entered Venetian territory, and was threatening the pass between Italy and Austria. By early 1797 Austria was forced to sign the humiliating treaty of Campo Formio, ceding the Netherlands and most of Northern Italy to France, keeping only the province of Venice. Without Austrian protection many of the other northern duchies of Italy, such as Parma and Modena, surrendered and were combined with Sardinia and Lombardy into the "Cisalpine Republic", a French client state. For the next few years, much of the income of the French government came from plunder and tribute from Italy, and Napoleon became a national hero.

Once Napoleon had conquered Northern Italy, he returned to France and then led an Expedition to Egypt. French troops then invaded Tuscany and the Papal States and kidnapped Pope Pius VI. Meanwhile, Austria formed a new alliance with Russia and in 1799 the Polish general Suvorov led a large force back into Northern Italy. His success in reclaiming Italian territory for Austria helped bring about a crisis in the French government. Just in time, Napoleon returned from Egypt, made himself consul and crossed the Alps. Within three month he had reconquered northern Italy and brought an end to the wars of the second coalition.

Date	Battle Summary
	Napoleon's First Campaign in Italy, 1796-97
1796	Battle of Montenotte (Italian Campaign-1st ) French victory Fought April 10 and 11, 1796, when d'Argentian, with the central division of the Austro-Sardinian army, attacked the French position at Montenotte, held by Cervoni's division. Cervoni was driven back, but the key to the position was held throughout the day by Tampon, with 1,500 men, and on the 12th d'Argentian found himself out-flanked by Augereau and Massena, and was compelled to fall back, with a loss of 1,000 killed, 2,000 prisoners, and some guns. This was Napoleon's first victory.
1796	Battle of Millesimo (Italian Campaign-1st ) French victory Fought April 13, 1796, when the divisions of Augereau, Massena and La Harpe attacked the Austrians, strongly entrenched, under General Colli, and after severe fighting, drove them back, thus cutting Colli's communications with General Beaulieu, the Austrian Commander-in-Chief. The Austro-Sardinians lost about 6,000 men and 30 guns, and all effective co-operation between the two wings was at an end. Also called the Battle of Monte Lezino.
1796	Battle of Bridge of Lodi (Italian Campaign-1st ) French victory Fought May 10, 1796, during Napoleon's pursuit of the retiring Austro-Sardinian army, under Beaulieu. The bridge over the Adda was defended by the Austrian rear-guard, with some 20 guns, commanding passage. Napoleon sent a force of cavalry round by a ford to take the defenders in rear, and then rushed the bridge, the stormers being led by Berthier and Massena, while Napoleon himself was in the thick of the fighting. The French loss is said not to have exceeded 400, while the Austrians lost in the action and subsequent pursuit, 2,000 killed and wounded, 1,000 prisoners, and 20 guns.
1796	Battle of Borghetto (Italian Campaign-1st ) French victory Fought May 30, 1796, in the course of Napoleon's pursuit of Beaulieu. The French crossed the Mincio at Borghetto, having previously repaired the bridge under a heavy fire, and forced the Austrians to evacuate Feschiera, with a loss of 500 prisoners, besides killed and wounded.
1796	Siege of Mantua (Italian Campaign-1st ) French victory This city was invested by Napoleon June 4, 1796, and was defended by 14,000 Austrians, under General Canto d'Irles. The siege was vigorously prosecuted, but the approach of Wurmser with a large Austrian army forced Napoleon to concentrate his forces, and he raised the siege July 31, After a brief campaign, which resulted in the dispersal of Wurmser's army, that general, with the remnant of his forces, was shut up in the city, which was again closely invested September 19. Wurmser held out till his provisions were exhausted, when, on February 2, 1997, he surrendered, with 20,000 men, of whom only 10,000 were, fit for service. It is computed that 27,000 perished during the siege.
1796	Battle of Castiglione (Italian Campaign-1st ) French victory Fought August 3, 1796, between the French under Napoleon, and the Imperialists under Wurmser. Napoleon, with 25,000 men, advanced upon Lonato, while Augereau moved upon Castiglione. Lonato was carried by assault, and the Austrian army cut in two. One part under General Bazalitch effected a retreat to the Mincio, but the other section was cut up by a French division under Guyeaux and Junot's dragoons, near Salo, losing 3,000 prisoners and 20 guns. In the portion of the action fought near Castiglione, the Austrians were defeated with a loss of 2,000 men, after a desperate encounter, and driven back upon Mantua. On the 4th, Napoleon at Lonato, with only 12,000 men, was summoned to surrender by a portion of Bazalitch's force, 4,000 strong. Napoleon, however, succeeded in making the messenger think that he was in the middle of the main French army, and consequently the whole Austrian detachment laid down their arms.
1796	Battle of Medola (Italian Campaign-1st ) French victory Fought August 5, 1796, between the French, 23,000 strong, under Napoleon, and 25,000 Austrians, under Wurmser. The Austrians were totally defeated, and driven back to Roveredo, with a loss of 2,000 killed and wounded, 1,000 prisoners and 20 guns. Prior to this defeat Wurmser had succeeded in revictualling Mantua, but at very heavy cost, the Austrian losses during the three days' fighting, from the 3rd to the 5th, amounting to 20,000 men and 60 guns.
1796	Battle of Roveredo (Italian Campaign-1st ) French victory Fought September 4, 1796, between 25,000 Austrians, under Davidowich, and the main body of Napoleon's army. Napoleon attacked the Austrian entrenched position, and in spite of a determined defense, carried it, driving the enemy out of Roveredo with heavy loss, including 7,000 prisoners and 15 guns. This victory enabled Massena to occupy Trent, and the remnants of the Austrian army were driven headlong into the Tyrol.
1796	Battle of Primolano (Italian Campaign-1st ) French victory Fought September 7, 1796, when Napoleon surprised and totally routed the vanguard of Wurmser's army. The Austrians lost over 4,000 killed, wounded and prisoners.
1796	Battle of Bassano (Italian Campaign-1st ) French victory Fought September 8, 1796, when Napoleon, who had on the previous day destroyed the Austrian vanguard at Primolano, fell upon the main body of Wurmser's army. The assault on the town of Bassano was delivered by Augereau's division on the right, and Massena's on the left, and the French utterly routed the Austrians, Wurmser narrowly escaping capture. Six thousand men laid down their arms, and when Wurmser collected his scattered forces, he had but 16,000 left out of the 60,000 with which he had commenced the campaign.
1796	Battle of Caldiero (Italian Campaign-1st ) Austrians victory Fought November 11, 1796, between the French under Napoleon and the Austrians under Alvinzi. Napoleon attacked the Austrian position, and, for the first time in the campaign, suffered a reverse, being unable to carry the enemy's lines, and eventually, after severe fighting, retiring with a loss of 3,000. Within the week, however, this defeat was avenged by the victory of Arcola.
1796	Battle of Arcola (Italian Campaign-1st ) French victory Fought November 15, 16, and 17, 1796, between the main Austrian army under Alvinzi, and the French under Napoleon. Napoleon's object was to drive back Alvinzi before he could effect a junction with Davidowich, who was descending from the Tyrol. The village of Arcola was occupied on the 15th, after severe fighting, in which Napoleon was in great personal danger on the bridge, but it was evacuated during the night. On the 16th Napoleon again attacked the village, but the Austrians held their ground. On the 17th he turned the position, and Davidowich still remaining inactive, Alvinzi was driven back, with losses variously estimated at from 8,000 to 18,000. The French also lost heavily.
1797	Battle of Rivoli (Italian Campaign-1st ) French victory Fought January 14, 1797, when the Austrians, with five divisions, under Alvinzi, attacked Napoleon's position on the heights of Rivoli. The position proved too strong to be carried, and Napoleon's superb handling of his troops resulted in the total defeat of the assailants. The fifth Austrian division, which had not taken part in the frontal attack, appeared in the rear of the French position after the battle was over, and being forced by overwhelming numbers, laid down its arms. Massena, who had specially distinguished himself, took his title from this battle when later ennobled by Napoleon.
1797	Battle of La Favorita (Italian Campaign-1st ) French victory Fought January 16, 1797, between the French, under Napoleon, and the Austrians, under Provera. Provera moved upon Mantua to succour the beleaguered garrison, and was aided by a sortie in force. Napoleon, making a forced march from the field of Rivoli, fell upon Provera and totally routed him, while the sortie was repulsed by the French besieging force at the point of the bayonet. Provera surrendered, with 5,000 men.
1797	Battle of Imola (Italian Campaign-2nd ) French victory Fought February 3, 1797, when 8,000 French and Italians, under Victor, defeated the Papal troops, 7,000 strong, under General Colli. Victor took the Papal army in the rear, and routed them with a loss of a few hundred only, as no stand was made.
	Russian/Austrian Offensive of 1799
1799	Battle of San Giovanni (Italian Campaign-2nd ) Russians victory Fought June 17, 1799, between the French, under Macdonald, and the Russians, under Suwaroff. After three days' hard fighting, the French were forced to retreat, having suffered a loss of 6,000 killed and wounded and 9,000 prisoners. The Russian losses were about 6,000.
1799	Battle of Trebbia (Italian Campaign-2nd ) Russians victory Fought June 19 to 21, 1799, between the French, under Macdonald, and the Russians, under Suwaroff. After a severe conflict the French were totally defeated and driven beyond the Apennines, being obliged shortly afterwards to evacuate Italy.
1799	Battle of Novi (Italian Campaign-2nd ) Russians victory Fought August 15, 1799, between the French, under Joubert, and the Russians and Austrians, under Suwaroff. Early in the action Joubert fell, Moreau succeeding to the command. The result was disastrous to the French, who were defeated with a loss of 7,000 killed and wounded, 3,000 prisoners, and 37 guns. The allies lost 6,000 killed and wounded and 1,200 prisoners.
	Napoleon Returns to Italy, 1800
1800	Battle of Montebello (Italian Campaign-2nd ) French victory Fought June 9, 1800, between the French, under Napoleon, and the Austrians, under General Ott. Napoleon, being ignorant of the fall of Genoa, was marching to the relief of that city, when his advanced guard, under Lannes, was attacked by Ott, who was endeavoring to effect a junction with Melas. Lannes held his ground until reinforcements arrived, when he assumed the offensive, and drove the Austrians from the field with heavy loss, capturing 5,000 prisoners.
1800	Battle of Marengo (Italian Campaign-2nd ) French victory Fought June 14, 1800, between 30,000 French, under Napoleon, and 40,000 Austrians, under Melas. The Austrians attacked, and drove back in disorder the first line under Victor, and, following up their success, a serious defeat for Napoleon seemed inevitable, when the arrival of the reserve corps under Desaix turned the scale. Under cover of his attack, the broken divisions reformed, and the Austrians were finally repulsed at all points, and fled in disorder. Desaix was killed at the head of his troops.
1800	Battle of Caldiero (Italian Campaign-2nd ) French victory On November 30, 1800, Massena, with 50,000 French, encountered the Austrians, 80,000 strong, under the Archduke Charles, strongly posted in the village and on the heights of Caldiero. Massena attacked and carried the heights, but the village held out until nightfall. During the night the Archduke removed his baggage and artillery, leaving a corps of 5,000 men, under General Hillinger, to protect his retreat, which force was on the following day captured en bloc. The Austrians lost 3,000 killed and wounded, and, including Hillinger's corps, 8,000 prisoners; the French about 4,000 killed and wounded. Thus, though the battle was indecisive, Massena gained a considerable strategic victory.
1800	Siege of Genoa (Naval ) Austrians victory In April, 1800, Genoa, held by the French, under Massena, was besieged by the Austrians under General Melas, and later in the siege under General Ott. The city had for some time been blockaded on the seaward side by the British fleet, under Lord Keith. Provisions were consequently scarce, and notwithstanding some successful sorties, Massena was forced to capitulate, June 5, the garrison marching out without laying down their arms.

Commander	Short Biography
Napoleon	Victorious general who rose to power during the French Revolution. Crowned himself Emperor and restored France to greatness.
Archduke Charles	Younger brother of Francis II. Important general of the Austrian army during the Napoleonic Wars.
Massena	French-Italian General who distinguished himself in Napoleon's Italian Campaign.
Wurmser	Austrian General defeated by Napoleon in the Italian Campaign.

Story Links	Book Links
Bridge of Lodi  in	The Story of France  by  Mary Macgregor
Great St. Bernard Pass  in	The Story of France  by  Mary Macgregor
Napoleon as Consul  in	The Story of Napoleon  by  Henrietta Elizabeth Marshall

First War of Italian Unification : 1848-49

The restoration of the Hapsburg monarchies in Italy was a difficult transition since the client states established by Napoleon had been in existence for almost 20 years. Liberal, anti-clerical secret societies such as the Freemasons, the "Carbonari", and "Young Italy", existed throughout Italy and repressive measures were taken by the restored monarchies to exile dissidents and censor newspapers. These measures became more severe after liberal uprisings in Naples, Piedmont, Rome, Parma, Bologna, and other areas between 1920 and 1930, and in 1931 an Austrian army marched into Italy, arrested many radical leaders and sent many more into exile. Mazzini was one of the most important agitators, and he advocated uniting Italy into a single republic, rather than simply reforming the existing kingdoms.

GARIBALDI LEADS A CHARGE ON CORSINI HILL IN ROME

In 1848, rebellions broke out in a number of European countries, including France, Italy, Austria, and Poland. Political agitators of Northern Italy had long sought to drive Austria out of the region, and the uprisings created just the diversion they needed to attack Austrian strongholds and annex the Duchy of Milan and Venice to Sardinia. Although the first few battles went well for the patriots, eventually Austria sent an Army under Field-Marshall Radetsky, and the patriots were driven back to Sardinia. Charles Albert of Savoy, who had led the patriot troops, then abdicated the throne of Piedmont-Sardinia in favor of his son Victor Emmanuel II.

Meanwhile, in the Papal States, Pope Pius IX tried to appease the reformers by freeing dissidents and granting a constitution, but he was horrified by the resulting abuse of power and the murder of one of his ministers. He fled Rome, and shortly afterward, Garibaldi and Mazzini arrived and set up a Roman Republic. It had very little popular support, however, and the exile of the Pope angered Catholics throughout Europe. The short lived Roman Republic was put down by French soldiers, after a two-month siege. Garibaldi had already made a name for himself as a "freedom fighter", but his dramatic defense of the Roman Republic and flight from the city increased his legendary status.

Date	Battle Summary
	Carbonari Uprising in Naples.
1821	Battle of Rieti (Jacobite Rising ) Austrians victory Fought March 21, 1821, between 12,000 Neapolitans, under General Pepe, and the Austrian invading army, 80,000 strong, As long as he was opposing only the advance guard, Pepe made a most resolute resistance, but on their being reinforced from the main body, the Neapolitans were overpowered by superior numbers, and finally driven in confusion from the field. Two days' later the Austrians entered Naples, and reinstated Ferdinand on the throne.
	Charles Albert's campaign in Lombardy.
1848	Battle of Milan Rebellion (1st Italian Unity ) Austrians victory Five Days of Milan was an uprising
1848	Battle of Goits (1st Italian Unity ) Patriots victory Fought May 30, 1848, between the Piedmontese under Charles Albert of Savoy, and the Austrians under General Radetsky. The Austrians were completely defeated, and Radetsky compelled to take refuge behind the line of the Adige.
1849	Battle of Mortara (1st Italian Unity ) Austrians victory Fought March 21, 1849, between the Piedmontese, under the Duke of Savoy (Victor Emmanuel) and General Darando, and the main Austrian army, under Radetsky. No steps had been taken by the Piedmontese to render Mortara defensible, and little guard was kept, with the result that they were surprised by Radetsky, and driven out of the town in confusion, with a loss of 500 killed and wounded, 2,000 prisoners and 5 guns. The Austrians lost 300 only.
1849	Battle of Novara (1st Italian Unity ) Austrians victory Fought March 23, 1849, between 50,000 Piedmontese, under Chrzanowski, and three Austrian army corps, under Radetsky. After hard fighting, the Piedmontese were completely defeated and driven from the field in disorder.
1849	Battle of Brescia (2nd Italian Unity ) Austrians victory This city, where the populace had risen and shut up the small Austrian garrison in the citadel, was carried by assault by Genera Haynau, with about 4,000 Austrians, March 31, 1849. Carrying the Porta Torrelunga, he fought his way from barricade to barricade, till, by the evening of April 1, the resistance of the citizens was overcome. The Austrians lost 480 killed, including General Nugent, and many wounded. The wholesale executions ordered by Haynau after the capture earned for him the sobriquet of the Hyna.
1848	Battle of Custozza (1st Italian Unity ) Austrians victory Fought July 24, 1848, between 22,000 troops from Sardinia-Piedmont under Charles Albert, and 33,000 Austrians under Radezky. The Austrians overwhelmed the Piedmont troops and drove them out of Lombardy.
	Garibaldi's defense of Rome
1848	Battle of Morazzone (Defense of Rome 1849 ) Austrians victory Fought 1848 between 1,500 Garibaldian volunteers, under Garibaldi, and 5,000 Austrians, under General d'Aspre. After a resistance lasting eleven hours, Garibaldi, hopelessly outnumbered, withdrew his force from the town, and executed a masterly retreat to Arona.
1849	Battle of Palestrina (Defense of Rome 1849 ) Patriots victory Fought May 9, 1849, between 4,000 Italian Patriots, under Garibaldi, and 7,000 Neapolitans, under King Ferdinand. After three hours' fighting, the Neapolitans were totally routed. Garibaldi was wounded in the action.
1849	Battle of Velletri (Defense of Rome 1849 ) Patriots victory Fought May 19, 1849, between 10,000 Garibaldians, under Roselli, and the Neapolitans, 10,000 strong, under Ferdinand, King of Naples. The advance guard, under Garibaldi, attacked the town of Velletri, which made a poor defense, and was evacuated during the night. The losses of the Garibaldians were small.
1850	Battle of Garigliano (Neapolitan Rising ) Patriots victory Fought October, 1850, between the Italian patriots under Cialdini, and the Neapolitans under Francis II of Naples. The patriots were victorious.
1849	Battle of Rome (Defense of Rome 1849 ) French victory After the proclamation of a Roman republic by Garibaldi and his adherents in 1848, a French army, under General Oudinot, was sent to restore the papal rule. On April 30, 1849, the French, 7,000 strong, attacked the Porta San Pancrazio, where they were encountered by the Republicans, under Garibaldi, and repulsed, with a loss of 300 killed and wounded and 500 prisoners. The Garibaldians lost 100. On June 3 of the same year the French, under Oudinot, 20,000 strong, made a night attack upon the Garibaldians, who brought up about 8,000 men to oppose them. The Garibaldians were repulsed, with a loss of over 2,000, including 200 officers. Oudinot then laid siege to the city, which, after a terrible bombardment, surrendered July 2, 1849.

Commander	Short Biography
General Radetsky	Austrian General who quelled the uprising of 1848.
Victor Emmanuel II	Became first king of a United Italy after Garibaldi handed over control of Naples. Previously Savoyard King of Sardinia.
Mazzini	Italian journalist and political activist who worked for the Unification of Italy and advocated popular democracy throughout Europe.
Pope Pius IX	Long serving pope who reigned during the unification of Italy. Famous for Vatican I, papal infallibility doctrine, and Syllabus of Errors.
Ferdinand, King of Naples
Charles Albert of Savoy	Leader of the Piedmont forces in 1848
Garibaldi	Led several campaigns in the Wars of Italian Unification. Renowned as a hero patriot of Italy.
General Oudinot	French General sent to restore Papal rule

Story Links	Book Links

Second War of Italian Unification : 1859-60

NAPOLEON III AT THE BATTLE OF SOLFERINO

Sardinia's direct assault approach against Austria had failed, but in 1852, Cavour became Prime Minister, and began a more diplomatic approach to unifying Italy. He realized Sardinia could not beat Austria without the help of other powers, so he made a strategic alliance with England and France. Eventually he came up with a strategy by which France, under Napoleon III, would help overthrow Austria in Lombardy and Venice, and Sardinia would cede Savoy and Nice to France. This plan worked much better, and at the battle of Solferino, France defeated Austria and forced them into negotiations. The final settlement, by which Lombardy was annexed to Sardinia, but Austria was left in control of Venice, was negotiated mainly between the French and Austrians. The process by which Parma, Modena, and Tuscany were integrated into the "United Provinces of Central Italy", was also accomplished by behind-the-scenes diplomacy.

The "victory" of Sardinia in the Second War of Italian Unification was affected almost entirely by statesmanship, rather than by arms, or by popular election. The final arrangement, by which Sardinia annexed most of Northern Italy in exchange for ceding Savoy and Nice to France, was worked out by way of back-room deals rather than the battlefield, because neither France, Austria, or Sardinia wanted to risk another battle, and none was certain that popular opinion favored their schemes. In March of 1860, all of North Italy except Vienna was annexed into the Kingdom of Sardinia, with Victor Emmanuel II as king. In spite of the peaceful resolution, all sides were unhappy with the outcome and all expected continued conflict in the future.

Date	Battle Summary
1859	Battle of Montebello (2nd Italian Unity ) French victory Fought May 20, 1859, between the Austrians, under General Stadion, and about 7,000 French, under General Forey. The Austrians were defeated and driven back to Stradella, with a loss of 2,000 killed and wounded, and 200 prisoners.
1859	Battle of Varese (2nd Italian Unity ) Patriots victory Fought May 25, 1859, between 3,000 Garibaklians, under Garibaldi, and 5,000 Austrians, under General Urban. The Austrians were repulsed after hard fighting, and suffered considerable loss. This action is also known as the Battle of Malnate.
1859	Battle of Palestro (2nd Italian Unity ) Sardinians victory Fought May 30, 1859, between the Sardinians, under General Cialdini, and the Austrians, under General Stadion. The Austrians attacked the Sardinians while they were crossing the Sesia, but were repulsed, and Cialdini effected the passage successfully and drove the Austrians out of Palestro with considerable loss.
1859	Battle of Turbigo (2nd Italian Unity ) French victory Fought June 3, 1859, when the advance guard of Marshal Macmahon's corps, under the Marshal in person, was attacked by a portion of the Austrian division of Clam-Gallas, while simultaneously 4,000 Austrians assailed the bridge over the canal near the Ticino, which the French main body was crossing. After severe fighting both attacks were repulsed with considerable loss.
1859	Battle of Magenta (2nd Italian Unity ) French victory Fought June 4, 1859, between the 2nd French Corps d'Armee, under Macmahon, and the main Austrian army, under Marshal Giulay, about 100,000 strong. Macmahon attacked the Austrian position, and, after hard fighting, drove them out of Magenta, and totally defeated them with a loss of about 6,000 killed and wounded. The French lost 4,400.
1859	Battle of Malegnano (2nd Italian Unity ) French victory Fought June 8, 1859, between three French divisions, under Marshal Baraguay d'Hilhers, and the Austrians, in about equal force. After three hours' hard fighting, the Austrians were defeated and driven out of Malegnano, with heavy loss, including 1,000 prisoners. The French lost 850 killed and wounded.
1859	Battle of Solferino (Expedition of the Thousand ) French victory Fought June 24, 1859, between 150,000 Austrians, under the Emperor Francis Joseph, with Generals Wimpffen and Scholick in actual command. and the French and Piedmontese, under Napoleon III and Victor Emmanuel. The French attacked the Austrian position on the heights round Solferino, which were held by Scholick, and after very hard fighting, they were captured by the corps of Macmahon and Baraguay d'Hilliers. Meanwhile Wimpffen, with three Army Corps, attacked the French left, but was held at bay throughout the day by Marshal Niel's corps, and when night fell, the Austrian centre being broken, Francis Joseph had no option but to retreat, and consequently recrossed the Mincio. The Austrians lost 22,000 killed, wounded and missing. The allies' losses were 18,000, of which number the Piedmontese corps of 25,000 lost 4,000.

Commander	Short Biography
General Stadion
Patrice MacMahon	First elected president of the Third French Republic. Conservative popular with both Monarchists and Bonapartists.
Frances Joseph of Austria
Napoleon III	Nephew of Napoleon, elected emperor of France after revolution of 1848. Deposed after disastrous Franco-Prussian War.

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Expedition of the Thousand : 1860-61

Only a few months after Sardinia had successfully annexed the kingdoms of Northern Italy, Southern Italy also fell to the patriots. The "Expedition of the Thousand" is the most famous campaign of the war, due to the popularity of the Italian hero Garibaldi. Although Garibaldi had served under Victor Emmanuel in the wars against Austria in the North, the two greatly distrusted each other. Garibaldi was idealistic, personally courageous, and scrupulously honest, but a radical in terms of politics. The statesmen of Sardinia, on the other hand, were moderate, pragmatic, and self-serving. They feared Garibaldi's influence and personal popularity, while Garibaldi considered the Sardinian government corrupt and untrustworthy.

GARIBALDI STORMS THE BARRICADES IN PALERMO

Always anxious to avoid the appearance of aggression, Cavour, the prime minister of Sardinia, encouraged Garibaldi to raise an army of unofficial volunteers to aid a rebellion in Sicily. Cavour knew that many of the officers of the Neapolitan army were sympathetic to the liberal cause and would not seriously oppose a rebellion, and that Garibaldi's personal popularity would greatly help his cause. By using Garibaldi's volunteer forces, rather than an official Sardinian army to support a rebellion in Southern Italy, Cavour knew he had an excellent chance of gaining control of the region, while making it appear to be a popular movement rather than an act of aggression.

Garibaldi's whole Expedition was something of a charade. His volunteers were poorly armed and clothed because Sardinia could not "officially" recognized them. Yet the Sardinia government and their English co-conspirators spent thousands of dollars bribing Neopolitan officiers to refrain from fighting and English ships accompanied Garibaldi's transport. Francesco Crispi, a Sicilian statesmen in league with Mazzini help arrange additional forces to join Garibaldi on landing, and worked to stir up popular support for the rebellion. And most importantly, key Neopolitan officers had been induced to desert their posts and throw the battle.

The Neopolitan troops did a poor job of resisting the invaders so soon after Garibaldi's forces landed in Sicily, they were close to control of Palermo, the capital city. Several thousand additional troops arrived from Naples and bombarded the city, but failed to dislodge Garibaldi. Eventually a truce was called and a conference arranged by a British Admiral in the region. The conference consisted of the warring parties, plus admirals from Britain, America, France, and Sardinia who were somehow able to persuade the Royalist general that he would be wise to surrender in spite of the fact he had 15,000 men at arms to Garibaldi's 500. Although bribery and strong-arming from foreign governments was primarily responsible for the patriot victory, official credit for the "popular uprising" was given to Garibaldi.

A few weeks later, Garibaldi and his men attacked Messina, and again, the Neopolitans failed to hold the city against a few thousand poorly armed rebels. Again, Garibaldi's brilliant generalship was credited for the victory, in spite of the fact that traitorous Royalists refused to provide reinforcements, and naval support for the rebels was provided by Britain. Soon after the victory at Milazzo, Garibaldi and his men, aided again by foreign admirals, embarked for Southern Italy and was hailed as a "liberator". The king and his ministers fled Naples to Capua and prepared to oppose Garibaldi at the Volturnus river.

By this time the Sardinian government was anxious to gain control of the situtation, since they feared that Garibaldi would march on Rome and provoke French intevention. Sardinia therefore made a behind-the-scenes agreement with the France to leave Rome unmolested while they marched through Papal territory to the east. After two lopsided battles at Castelfidardo and Ancona, against international volunteers who had come to the aid of the Pope, the eastern Papal states fell to Sardinia. All that was left was to join forces with Garibaldi, and drive the Neopolitans out of their last stronghold at Gaeta.

Once Garibaldi turned over his command to King Emmanuel of Sardinia, all of Italy was united under one king, excepting the Venice and the territory surrounding Rome. Elections were held in each newly acquired state to give the population the chance to vote on annexation, but the franchise was carefully limited to those most likely to be in favor of a integration into the newly formed "Kingdom of Italy". Unsurprisingly, the elections showed overwhelming popular support for the new government.

Date	Battle Summary
1860	Battle of Calatafimi (Expedition of the Thousand ) Redshirts victory Fought May 15, 1860, between Garibaldi's "Thousand Volunteers," with a few thousand Sicilian "Picciotti" and 4,000 Neapolitans under General Landi. The Neapolitans were driven back with heavy loss, and retreated in disorder to Palermo. Garibaldi lost, of his thousand, 18 killed and 128 wounded.
1860	Battle of Palermo (Expedition of the Thousand ) Redshirts victory Fought May 26 and 27, 1848, when Garibaldi, with 750 of his "Thousand Volunteers," and about 3,000 Sicilian "Picciotti," succeeded in surprising one of the gates of Palermo, which was garrisoned by 18,000 Neapolitans, under General Lanza. The "Picciotti" fled at the first shot, but Garibaldi penetrated into the city, where, being joined by the citizens, he erected barricades, and after some severe fighting, in which the Neapolitans suffered heavily, General Lanza surrendered. The last of the Neapolitan troops were withdrawn on June 20.
1860	Battle of Milazzo (Expedition of the Thousand ) Redshirts victory Fought July 18, 1860, between the Italian Volunteers, under Garibaldi, and the Neapolitans, under General Bosco. The Neapolitans occupied a strongly entrenched position, which Garibaldi succeeded in turning, the Neapolitans, after a severe struggle, being totally defeated and driven out.
1860	Battle of Castelfidardo (Expedition of the Thousand ) Sardinians victory Fought September 18, 1860, between the Papal troops under General La Moriciere, about 8,000 strong, and the Sardinians, 40,000 strong, under General Cialdini. The Papal army was totally routed, and, after the action, La Moriciere was only able to assemble about 300 infantry, with which remnant he made his way to Ancona.
1860	Siege of Ancona (Garibaldi's Rising ) Sardinians victory This place was attacked, September, 1860, by the Piedmontese fleet of 13 warships under Admiral Persano, and the army of General Cialdini. It was defended by a small Papal garrison under La Moricière, and after a resistance of over a week, at the end of which time Persano forced the boom guarding the harbour, La Moricière capitulated.
1860	Battle of Volturno (Expedition of the Thousand ) Redshirts victory Fought October 1, 1860, between 20,000 Italians, under Garibaldi, and 40,000 Neapolitans, under Alan de Riva. Garibaldi's position in front of Capua was attacked by the Neapolitans, who, after hard fighting, were repulsed all along the line, with heavy loss. The Garibaldian casualties were 2,023 killed and wounded. The Neapolitans lost 2,070 prisoners, but their losses in killed and wounded are unknown. In consequence of this victory, Garibaldi almost immediately captured Capua.
1860	Siege of Gaeta (Expedition of the Thousand ) Sardinians victory Gaeta was the capital of Francis II after he was driven out of Naples and it was strongly defended by the Neopolitan army. It was besieged by Sardinians under Colonel Cialdini on November 3, 1860. Gaeta capitulated on February 13, and Francis II abdicated and went into exile.

Commander	Short Biography
Francisco Crispi
Garibaldi	Led several campaigns in the Wars of Italian Unification. Renowned as a hero patriot of Italy.
Victor Emmanuel II	Became first king of a United Italy after Garibaldi handed over control of Naples. Previously Savoyard King of Sardinia.
Francis II of Sicily

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Third War of Italian Unification : 1866

NAVAL BATTLE OF LISSA DURING THE AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR

In 1861, the "Kingdom of Italy", made up of former kingdoms of the Italian Peninsula, was officially established. The only independent provinces left in the region were Rome, which was protected by France, and Venice, protected by Austria. The Italian government could not claim either without risking war with a powerful empire. What could not be done through strength of arms, however, could be done with diplomacy. Before he died, Cavour had opened up negotiations with Otto von Bismarck of Prussia, and over the next few years the Italian-Prussian alliance would deliver both Venice and Rome into the Kingdom of Rome.

The conflict known as the "Third War of Italian Unification" was really just the Italian front of the Austro-Prussian war of 1866. Bismarck had prepared for war against Austria, and arranged with Italy to invade Venice as soon as war was declared between Austria and Prussia. A diversion in the south would greatly weaken Austria's abililty to oppose Prussia in the North. The Italians lost most of their battles with Austria, but they served their purpose in dividing Austria's forces, so once Bismarck was able to dictate terms of peace, he forced Austria to cede Venice to the Kingdom of Italy.

Date	Battle Summary
1848	Battle of Custozza (1st Italian Unity ) Austrians victory Fought July 24, 1848, between 22,000 troops from Sardinia-Piedmont under Charles Albert, and 33,000 Austrians under Radezky. The Austrians overwhelmed the Piedmont troops and drove them out of Lombardy.
1866	Battle of Lissa (3rd Italian Unity ) Austrians victory The only naval action between ironclads in European waters, fought July 20, 1866, between the Austrian fleet of 7 armoured ships and some obsolete wooden vessels, under Admiral Tegethoff, and the Italian fleet of to armour-clads, under Admiral Persano. Tegethoff attacked in wedge formation, with his flagship as the apex, and broke the line of the Italian fleet, which was steaming, line ahead, across his bows. He rammed and sank the Italian flagship, and the rest of the action was a melee in which the Italians were defeated and driven off, with a loss of 3 ships and over 1,000 men. This defeat forced the Italians to raise the siege of Lissa.

Commander	Short Biography
Garibaldi	Led several campaigns in the Wars of Italian Unification. Renowned as a hero patriot of Italy.

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Annexation of Rome : 1870

GARIBALDI MAKES A SECOND ATTEMPT TO TAKE ROME FOR ITALY.

After Venice was annexed to the Kingdom of Italy, only the province of Rome, guarded by French soldiers, remained independent. Garibaldi never gave up his dream of taking Rome and making it the capital of an Italian republic, and only a year after his victories in Sicily and Naples, he led a band of volunteers on an expedition to take Rome. The Italian government would have loved to annex Rome, but was unwilling to deal with the political consequences, so it sent an army to surround Garibaldi. There was little actual fighting, and Garibaldi was taken prisoner. He was a national hero, however, so he was released soon after.

Garibaldi made a second attempt to march on Rome in 1867, shortly after the Third War of Italian Unification. This time his expeditionary forces of over 5000 approached the city, and attempted an entry. The French and Papal forces were forced to resist, and a violent battle occurred. Garibaldi's troops suffered over 1000 killed before the began a retreat.

Three years later, the French troops protecting Rome were recalled, and the city was taken with little resistance. Although Italy played no part in the Franco Prussian War, the conflict and collapse of Napoleon III's government made it impossible for the French to maintain an garrison in Rome, and without a foreign garrison Rome was at the mercy of the Italians. The pope insisted on a nominal resistance because he refused to concede the legitimacy of the annexation of his domains. From the next 59 years the Popes considered themselves "Prisoners in the Vatican" and refused to accept the authority of the Italian government in Rome. It was not until the Lateran Treaty was signed in 1929, which established the Vatican as sovereign nation, that the Popes left the Papal residence and traveled freely within Italy.

Date	Battle Summary
1862	Battle of Aspromonte (Garibaldi's Rising ) Austrians victory Fought August 29, 1862, between a small force of "Red Shirts" under Garibaldi, and the royal troops under General Pallavicini. After a short engagement, in which Garibaldi was wounded, the "Red Shirts," largely outnumbered and surrounded, laid down their arms.
1867	Battle of Mentana (Defense of Rome 1849 ) French victory Fought November 3, 1867, between 10,000 Garibaldians, under Garibaldi, and the French and Papal troops, 5,000 strong, under General Kanzler. Garibaldi was totally defeated, a result largely due to the brilliant work of 1,500 Papal Zouaves, who drove them out of position after position. The Garibaldians lost 1,100 killed and wounded, and 1000 prisoners. The allies' losses were only 182 killed and wounded, of which the Papal troops lost 144.

Commander	Short Biography
Garibaldi	Led several campaigns in the Wars of Italian Unification. Renowned as a hero patriot of Italy.

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Garibaldi Welcoming Victor Emmanuel II. as King of Italy  in Greatest Nations - Germany